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Author: A Pogorelov
Added by: mirtitles
Added Date: 2018-10-16
Language: English
Subjects: mathematics, geometry, analytic geometry, vectors, straight line, mir publishers, mir books, conic sections, quadric surfaces, tangents, curves, differential geometry, history, curvature, torsion, axioms, non-Euclidean, projective, elementary problems, polyhedra, angles, volumes
Collections: mir-titles, additional collections
Pages Count: 600
PPI Count: 600
PDF Count: 1
Total Size: 599.51 MB
PDF Size: 25.9 MB
Extensions: epub, pdf, gz, zip, torrent
Year: 1987
Downloads: 13.43K
Views: 63.43
Total Files: 13
Media Type: texts
Total Files: 7
Description
“Geometry” by A. Pogorelov is a renowned mathematical textbook that has gained recognition for its comprehensive coverage of plane and solid geometry. The book is a valuable resource for students, teachers, and anyone interested in the study of geometry.
A. Pogorelov’s “Geometry” provides a systematic and rigorous introduction to both plane and solid geometry. It covers a wide range of topics, including Euclidean geometry, trigonometry, geometric transformations, and various properties of geometric figures. The book is known for its clarity and logical progression, making it accessible to students at various levels, from high school to college.
One of the distinguishing features of this book is its focus on proofs and theorems. A. Pogorelov emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying principles of geometry and provides detailed proofs for many theorems. This approach not only helps students grasp the material but also fosters their problem-solving skills and critical thinking.
The book also contains numerous exercises and problems that challenge the reader’s understanding and application of geometric concepts. These exercises vary in difficulty, allowing both beginners and more advanced students to benefit from the book.
A. Pogorelov’s “Geometry” is a classic in the field and has been translated into multiple languages, further expanding its reach and influence in the mathematical community. It remains a valuable resource for those seeking a deep understanding of geometry and serves as a reference for teachers and educators looking to enrich their geometry curriculum. Whether you’re a student, a teacher, or a mathematics enthusiast, this book is a valuable addition to your mathematical library, providing a solid foundation in the fascinating world of geometry.
ABOUT THE BOOK
This is a manual for the students of universities and teachers’ training colleges. Containing the compulsory course of geometry, its particular impact is on elementary topics. The book is, therefore, aimed at professional training of the school or university teacher-to-be. The first part, analytic geometry, is easy to assimilate, and actually reduced to acquiring skills in applying algebraic methods to elementary geometry.
The second part, differential geometry, contains the basics of the theory of curves and surfaces. The third part, foundations of geometry, is original. The fourth part is devoted to certain topics of elementary
geometry. The book as a whole must interest the reader in school or university teacher’s profession.
The book was translated from the Russian by Leonid Levant, Aleksandr Repyev and Oleg Efimov and published by Mir in 1987.
All credits to the original uploader.
Contents
Preface 10
Part One. Analytic Geometry 11
Chapter I. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates in the Plane 11
1. Introducing Coordinates in the Plane 11
2. Distance Between Two Points 12
3. Dividing a Line Segment in a Given Ratio 13
4. Equation of a Curve. Equation of a Circle 15
5. Parametric Equations of a Curve 17
6. Points of Intersection of Curves 19
7. Relative Position of Two Circles 20
Exercises to Chapter I 21
Chapter II. Vectors in the Plane 26
1. Translation 26
2. Modulus and the Direction of a Vector 28
3. Components of a Vector 30
4. Addition of Vectors 30
5. Multiplication of a Vector by a Number 31
6. Collinear Vectors 32
7. Resolution of a Vector into Two Non-Collinear Vectors 33
8. Scalar Product 34
Exercises to Chapter II 36
Chapter III. Straight Line in the Plane 38
1. Equation of a Straight Line. General Form 38
2. Position of a Straight Line Relative to a Coordinate System 40
3. Parallelism and Perpendicularity Condition for Straight Lines 41
4. Equation of a Pencil of Straight Lines 42
5. Normal Form of the Equation of a Straight Line 43
6. Transformation of Coordinates 44
7. Motions in the Plane 47
8. Inversion 47
Exercises to Chapter III
Chapter IV. Conic Sections 53
1. Polar Coordinates 53
2. Conic Sections 54
3. Equations of Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 56
4. Canonical Equations of Conic Sections in Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates 57
5. Types of Conic Sections 59
6. Tangent Line to a Conic Section 62
7. Focal Properties of Conic Sections 65
8. Diameters of a Conic Section 67
9. Curves of the Second Degree 69
Exercises to Chapter IV 71
Chapter V. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates and Vectors in Space 76
1. Cartesian Coordinates in Space. Introduction 76
2. Translation in Space 78
3. Vectors in Space 79
4. Decomposition of a Vector into Three Non-coplanar Vectors 80
5. Vector Product of Vectors 81
6. Scalar Triple Product of Vectors 83
7. Affine Cartesian Coordinates, 84
8. Transformation of Coordinates 85
9. Equations of a Surface and a Curve in Space 87
Exercises to Chapter V 89
Chapter VI.
Plane and a Straight Line in Space 95
1. Equation of a Plane 95
2. Position of a Plane Relative to a Coordinate System 96
3. Normal Form of Equations of the Plane 97
4. Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Planes 98
5. Equations of a Straight Line 99
6. Relative Position of a Straight Line and a Plane, of Two Straight Lines 100
7. Basic Problems en Straight Lines and Planes 102
Exercises to Chapter VI 103
Chapter VII. Quadric Surfaces 109
1. Special System of Coordinates 109
2. Classification of Quadric Surfaces 112
3. Ellipsoid 113
4. Hyperboloids 115
5. Paraboloids 116
6. Cone and Cylinders 118
7. Rectilinear Generators on Quadric Surfaces 119
8. Diameters and Diametral Planes of a Quadric Surface 120
9. Axes of Symmetry for a Curve. Planes of Symmetry for a Surface 122
Exercises to Chapter VII 123
Part Two.
Differential Geometry 126
Chapter VIII. Tangent and Osculating Planes of Curve 126
1. Concept of Curve 126
2. Regular Curve 127
3. Singular Points of a Curve 128
4. Vector Function of Scalar Argument 129
5. Tangent to a Curve 131
6. Equations of Tangents for Various Methods of Specifying a Curve 132
7. Osculating Plane of a Curve 134
8. Envelope of a Family of Plane Curves 136
Exercises to Chapter VIII 137
Chapter IX. Curvature and Torsion of Curve 140
1. Length of a Curve 140
2. Natural Parametrization of a Curve 142
3. Curvature 142
4. Torsion of a Curve 145
5. Frenet Formulas 147
6. Evolute and Evolvent of a Plane Curve 148
Exercises to Chapter IX 149
Chapter X. Tangent Plane and Osculating Paraboloid of Surface 151
1. Concept of Surface 151
2. Regular Surfaces 152
3. Tangent Plane to a Surface 153
4. Equation of a Tangent Plane 155
5. Osculating Paraboloid of a Surface 156
6. Classification of Surface Points 158
Exercises to Chapter X 159
Chapter XI. Surface Curvature 161
1. Surface Linear Element 161
2. Area of a Surface 162
3. Normal Curvature of a Surface 164
4. Indicatrix of the Normal Curvature 165
5. Conjugate Coordinate Lines on a Surface 167
6. Lines of Curvature 168
7. Mean and Gaussian Curvature of a Surface 170
8. Example of a Surface of Constant Negative Gaussian Curvature 172
Exercises to Chapter XI 173
Chapter XII. Intrinsic Geometry of Surface 175
1. Gaussian Curvature as an Object of the Intrinsic Geometry of Surfaces 175
2. Geodesic Lines on a Surface 178
3. Extremal Property of Geodesics 179
4. Surfaces of Constant Gaussian Curvature 180
5. Gauss-Bonnet Theorem 181
6. Closed Surfaces 182
Exercises to Chapter XII 184
Part Three. Foundations of Geometry 186
Chapter XIII. Historical Survey 186
1. Euclid’s Elements 186
2. Attempts to Prove the Fifth Postulate 188
3. Discovery of Non-Euclidean Geometry 189
4. Works on the Foundations of Geometry in the Second Half of the 19th century 191
5. System of Axioms for Euclidean Geometry according to D. Hilbert 192
Chapter XIV. System of Axioms for Euclidean Geometry and Their Immediate Corollaries 194
1. Basic Concepts 194
2. Axioms of Incidence 195
3. Axioms of Order 196
4. Axioms of Measure for Line Segments and Angles 197 5. Axiom of Existence of a Triangle Congruent to a Given One 199
6. Axiom of Existence of a Line Segment of Given Length 200
7. Parallel Axiom 202
8. Axioms for Space 202
Chapter XV. Investigation of Euclidean Geometry Axioms 203
1. Preliminaries 203
2. Cartesian Model of Euclidean Geometry 204
3. “Betweenness” Relation for Points in a Straight Line. Verification of the Axioms of Order 205
4. Length of a Segment. Verification of the Axiom of Measure for Line Segments 207
5. Measure of Angles in Degrees. Verification of Axiom III* 208
6. Validity of the Other Axioms in the Cartesian Model 210
7. Consistency and Completeness of the Euclidean Geometry Axiom System 212
8. Independence of the Axiom of Existence of a Line Segment of Given Length 214
9. Independence of the Parallel Axiom 216
10. Lobachevskian Geometry 218
Chapter XVI. Projective Geometry 222
1. Axioms of Incidence for Projective Geometry 222
2. Desargues Theorem 223
3. Completion of Euclidean Space with the Elements at Infinity 225
4. Topological Structure of a Projective Straight Line and Plane 226
5. Projective Coordinates and Projective Transformations 228
6. Cross Ratio 230
7. Harmonic Separation of Pairs of Points 232
8. Curves of the Second Degree and Quadric Surfaces 233
9. Steiner Theorem 235
10. Pascal Theorem 236
11. Pole and Polar 238
12. Polar Reciprocation. Brianchon Theorem 240
13. Duality Principle 241
14. Various Geometries in Projective Outlook 243
Exercises to Chapter XVI 245
Part Four. Certain Problems of Elementary Geometry 247
Chapter XVII. Methods for Solution of Construction Problems 247
1. Preliminaries 247
2. Locus Method 248
3. Similarity Method 250
4. Reflection Method 251
5. Translation Method 251
6. Rotation Method 252
7. Inversion Method 253
8. On Solvability of Construction Problems 255
Exercises to Chapter XVII 256
Chapter XVIII. Measuring Lengths, Areas and Volumes 258
1. Measuring Line Segments 258
2. Length of a Circumference 260
3. Areas of Figures 261
4. Volumes of Solids 265
5. Area of a Surface 267
Chapter XIX. Elements of Projection Drawing 268
1. Representation of a Point on an Epure 268
2. Problems Leading to a Straight Line 269
3. Determination of the Length of a Line Segment 270
4. Problems Leading to a Straight Line and a Plane 271
5. Representation of a Prism and a Pyramid 273
6. Representation of a Cylinder, a Cone and a Sphere 274
7. Construction of Sections 275
Exercises to Chapter XIX 277
Chapter XX. Polyhedral Angles and Polyhedra 278
1. Cosine Law for a Trihedral Angle 278
2. Trihedral Angle Conjugate to a Given One 279
3. Sine Law for a Trihedral Angle 280
4. Relation Between the Face Angles of a Polyhedra Angles 281
5. Area of a Spherical Polygon 282
6. Convex Polyhedra. Concept of Convex Body 283
7. Euler Theorem for Convex Polyhedra 284
8. Cauchy Theorem 285
9. Regular Polyhedra 288
Exercises to Chapter XX 289
Answers to Exercises, Hints and Solutions 291
ABOUT THE BOOK
This is a manual for the students of universities and teachers' training colleges. Containing the compulsory course of geometry, its particular impact is on elementary topics. The book is, therefore, aimed at professional training of the school or university teacher-to-be. The first part, analytic geometry, is easy to assimilate, and actually reduced to acquiring skills in applying algebraic methods to elementary geometry.
The second part, differential geometry, contains the basics of the theory of curves and surfaces. The third part, foundations of geometry, is original. The fourth part is devoted to certain topics of elementary
geometry. The book as a whole must interest the reader in school or university teacher's profession.
The book was translated from the Russian by Leonid Levant, Aleksandr Repyev and Oleg Efimov and published by Mir in 1987.
All credits to the original uploader.
Contents
Preface 10
Part One. Analytic Geometry 11
Chapter I. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates in the Plane 11
1. Introducing Coordinates in the Plane 11
2. Distance Between Two Points 12
3. Dividing a Line Segment in a Given Ratio 13
4. Equation of a Curve. Equation of a Circle 15
5. Parametric Equations of a Curve 17
6. Points of Intersection of Curves 19
7. Relative Position of Two Circles 20
Exercises to Chapter I 21
Chapter II. Vectors in the Plane 26
1. Translation 26
2. Modulus and the Direction of a Vector 28
3. Components of a Vector 30
4. Addition of Vectors 30
5. Multiplication of a Vector by a Number 31
6. Collinear Vectors 32
7. Resolution of a Vector into Two Non-Collinear Vectors 33
8. Scalar Product 34
Exercises to Chapter II 36
Chapter III. Straight Line in the Plane 38
1. Equation of a Straight Line. General Form 38
2. Position of a Straight Line Relative to a Coordinate System 40
3. Parallelism and Perpendicularity Condition for Straight Lines 41
4. Equation of a Pencil of Straight Lines 42
5. Normal Form of the Equation of a Straight Line 43
6. Transformation of Coordinates 44
7. Motions in the Plane 47
8. Inversion 47
Exercises to Chapter III
Chapter IV. Conic Sections 53
1. Polar Coordinates 53
2. Conic Sections 54
3. Equations of Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 56
4. Canonical Equations of Conic Sections in Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates 57
5. Types of Conic Sections 59
6. Tangent Line to a Conic Section 62
7. Focal Properties of Conic Sections 65
8. Diameters of a Conic Section 67
9. Curves of the Second Degree 69
Exercises to Chapter IV 71
Chapter V. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates and Vectors in Space 76
1. Cartesian Coordinates in Space. Introduction 76
2. Translation in Space 78
3. Vectors in Space 79
4. Decomposition of a Vector into Three Non-coplanar Vectors 80
5. Vector Product of Vectors 81
6. Scalar Triple Product of Vectors 83
7. Affine Cartesian Coordinates, 84
8. Transformation of Coordinates 85
9. Equations of a Surface and a Curve in Space 87
Exercises to Chapter V 89
Chapter VI.
Plane and a Straight Line in Space 95
1. Equation of a Plane 95
2. Position of a Plane Relative to a Coordinate System 96
3. Normal Form of Equations of the Plane 97
4. Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Planes 98
5. Equations of a Straight Line 99
6. Relative Position of a Straight Line and a Plane, of Two Straight Lines 100
7. Basic Problems en Straight Lines and Planes 102
Exercises to Chapter VI 103
Chapter VII. Quadric Surfaces 109
1. Special System of Coordinates 109
2. Classification of Quadric Surfaces 112
3. Ellipsoid 113
4. Hyperboloids 115
5. Paraboloids 116
6. Cone and Cylinders 118
7. Rectilinear Generators on Quadric Surfaces 119
8. Diameters and Diametral Planes of a Quadric Surface 120
9. Axes of Symmetry for a Curve. Planes of Symmetry for a Surface 122
Exercises to Chapter VII 123
Part Two.
Differential Geometry 126
Chapter VIII. Tangent and Osculating Planes of Curve 126
1. Concept of Curve 126
2. Regular Curve 127
3. Singular Points of a Curve 128
4. Vector Function of Scalar Argument 129
5. Tangent to a Curve 131
6. Equations of Tangents for Various Methods of Specifying a Curve 132
7. Osculating Plane of a Curve 134
8. Envelope of a Family of Plane Curves 136
Exercises to Chapter VIII 137
Chapter IX. Curvature and Torsion of Curve 140
1. Length of a Curve 140
2. Natural Parametrization of a Curve 142
3. Curvature 142
4. Torsion of a Curve 145
5. Frenet Formulas 147
6. Evolute and Evolvent of a Plane Curve 148
Exercises to Chapter IX 149
Chapter X. Tangent Plane and Osculating Paraboloid of Surface 151
1. Concept of Surface 151
2. Regular Surfaces 152
3. Tangent Plane to a Surface 153
4. Equation of a Tangent Plane 155
5. Osculating Paraboloid of a Surface 156
6. Classification of Surface Points 158
Exercises to Chapter X 159
Chapter XI. Surface Curvature 161
1. Surface Linear Element 161
2. Area of a Surface 162
3. Normal Curvature of a Surface 164
4. Indicatrix of the Normal Curvature 165
5. Conjugate Coordinate Lines on a Surface 167
6. Lines of Curvature 168
7. Mean and Gaussian Curvature of a Surface 170
8. Example of a Surface of Constant Negative Gaussian Curvature 172
Exercises to Chapter XI 173
Chapter XII. Intrinsic Geometry of Surface 175
1. Gaussian Curvature as an Object of the Intrinsic Geometry of Surfaces 175
2. Geodesic Lines on a Surface 178
3. Extremal Property of Geodesics 179
4. Surfaces of Constant Gaussian Curvature 180
5. Gauss-Bonnet Theorem 181
6. Closed Surfaces 182
Exercises to Chapter XII 184
Part Three. Foundations of Geometry 186
Chapter XIII. Historical Survey 186
1. Euclid's Elements 186
2. Attempts to Prove the Fifth Postulate 188
3. Discovery of Non-Euclidean Geometry 189
4. Works on the Foundations of Geometry in the Second Half of the 19th century 191
5. System of Axioms for Euclidean Geometry according to D. Hilbert 192
Chapter XIV. System of Axioms for Euclidean Geometry and Their Immediate Corollaries 194
1. Basic Concepts 194
2. Axioms of Incidence 195
3. Axioms of Order 196
4. Axioms of Measure for Line Segments and Angles 197 5. Axiom of Existence of a Triangle Congruent to a Given One 199
6. Axiom of Existence of a Line Segment of Given Length 200
7. Parallel Axiom 202
8. Axioms for Space 202
Chapter XV. Investigation of Euclidean Geometry Axioms 203
1. Preliminaries 203
2. Cartesian Model of Euclidean Geometry 204
3. "Betweenness" Relation for Points in a Straight Line. Verification of the Axioms of Order 205
4. Length of a Segment. Verification of the Axiom of Measure for Line Segments 207
5. Measure of Angles in Degrees. Verification of Axiom III* 208
6. Validity of the Other Axioms in the Cartesian Model 210
7. Consistency and Completeness of the Euclidean Geometry Axiom System 212
8. Independence of the Axiom of Existence of a Line Segment of Given Length 214
9. Independence of the Parallel Axiom 216
10. Lobachevskian Geometry 218
Chapter XVI. Projective Geometry 222
1. Axioms of Incidence for Projective Geometry 222
2. Desargues Theorem 223
3. Completion of Euclidean Space with the Elements at Infinity 225
4. Topological Structure of a Projective Straight Line and Plane 226
5. Projective Coordinates and Projective Transformations 228
6. Cross Ratio 230
7. Harmonic Separation of Pairs of Points 232
8. Curves of the Second Degree and Quadric Surfaces 233
9. Steiner Theorem 235
10. Pascal Theorem 236
11. Pole and Polar 238
12. Polar Reciprocation. Brianchon Theorem 240
13. Duality Principle 241
14. Various Geometries in Projective Outlook 243
Exercises to Chapter XVI 245
Part Four. Certain Problems of Elementary Geometry 247
Chapter XVII. Methods for Solution of Construction Problems 247
1. Preliminaries 247
2. Locus Method 248
3. Similarity Method 250
4. Reflection Method 251
5. Translation Method 251
6. Rotation Method 252
7. Inversion Method 253
8. On Solvability of Construction Problems 255
Exercises to Chapter XVII 256
Chapter XVIII. Measuring Lengths, Areas and Volumes 258
1. Measuring Line Segments 258
2. Length of a Circumference 260
3. Areas of Figures 261
4. Volumes of Solids 265
5. Area of a Surface 267
Chapter XIX. Elements of Projection Drawing 268
1. Representation of a Point on an Epure 268
2. Problems Leading to a Straight Line 269
3. Determination of the Length of a Line Segment 270
4. Problems Leading to a Straight Line and a Plane 271
5. Representation of a Prism and a Pyramid 273
6. Representation of a Cylinder, a Cone and a Sphere 274
7. Construction of Sections 275
Exercises to Chapter XIX 277
Chapter XX. Polyhedral Angles and Polyhedra 278
1. Cosine Law for a Trihedral Angle 278
2. Trihedral Angle Conjugate to a Given One 279
3. Sine Law for a Trihedral Angle 280
4. Relation Between the Face Angles of a Polyhedra Angles 281
5. Area of a Spherical Polygon 282
6. Convex Polyhedra. Concept of Convex Body 283
7. Euler Theorem for Convex Polyhedra 284
8. Cauchy Theorem 285
9. Regular Polyhedra 288
Exercises to Chapter XX 289
Answers to Exercises, Hints and Solutions 291
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